• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Capitalization
• Abbreviations and symbols
• Numbers
• Singular and plural

*For a more extensive list of verbs that follow this pattern, see Appendix I: Common verbs spelt with z using Oxford spelling.

• Ambiguity
  
  Use diacritics when their absence could result in ambiguity. For example, exposé, resumé and rosé, when unaccented, look like different words (in this case, expose, resume and rose, respectively). In many cases, when there is no possible ambiguity, you do not need to use the original diacritic (for example, facade, deja-vu or doppelganger). In other cases, however, assimilated foreign words, including some borrowed from French (for example, attaché, communiqué, soufflé or papier-mâché) and, increasingly, from Spanish (jalapeño and piñata), often keep their original diacritics.
  
  
• Names
  
  With names in other languages, respect people’s uses of diacritics.
  
  

  Please contact Dr González Martí, assistant rector for Communication, for further information.

  
  

  The plenary talk was given by Professor Johan Lübeck, a specialist in medieval German manuscripts.

  
  
  
  
• Other words
  
  When an English text uses foreign words or phrases that are not names but that have a diacritic in the original language, you should either keep all such marks or else use none at all. Be consistent. If you decide to use them, remember that they should also be used on capital letters.
  
  

  The Concept of Égalité in the Recognition of Non-EU Degrees in France: A Critical Analysis

Remember that you will only have five minutes to present your conclusion.

All assignments must be handed in by Friday 11 May.

• Titles of books, journals and other publications
  
  Unless following specific editorial guides, write the titles of books, journals and other published materials such as theses, end-of-degree projects, dictionaries and reference works in italics, to distinguish the titles from the rest of the sentence.
  
  

  Recent research into the applications of microbial cyanobacteria in treating oil pollution has been published in the latest edition of the prestigious journal Science Today.

  
  
  Be aware, however, that conventions for indicating the title of a book or journal may vary depending on the publication or academic field. You will therefore have to bear these factors in mind, depending on the purpose of your text and where it will be published. For additional comment, see Titles.
  
  
• Words and expressions in other languages
  
  Italicize words or expressions from other languages that are not common in English (that is, words not included in a reliable English dictionary) and that may therefore not be readily understood.
  
  

  The ceiling of the Faculty’s Aula Magna offers visitors a beautiful example of Catalan Modernisme.

  
  
  Other expressions of this kind are the Latin terms for academic distinction, cum laude, magna cum laude and summa cum laude (meaning “with honour”, “with great honour” and “with highest honour”, respectively), which should be italicized.
  
  But note that foreign words that have now become common in English do not require italics.
  
  

  addendum	cognoscenti	entente cordiale	papier maché
  ad hoc	communiqué	ex-ante	schadenfreude
  alma mater	croissant	fest	status quo
  attaché	deja-vu	genre	terra firma
  avant-garde	doppelganger	hors d’oeuvre	vice versa
  barista	éminence gris	kefir	zeitgeist

  
  
  
  Note also that, in the event of using a non-English form for the official name of an organization (universities, companies, governmental bodies, etc.) these names are not written in italics.
  
  

  The University is currently involved in discussions with the Red Española de Supercomputación (Spanish Supercomputing Network).

• Nouns formed from phrasal verbs
  
  Nouns formed from phrasal verbs are often written as a single word and may or may not be hyphenated. If in doubt, consult a dictionary.
  
  

  The dropouts from this course are unusually high.

  
  

  Funding problems have meant that these projects have been put on standby.

  
  

  A major follow-up to this study has already been planned.

  
  

  Last year’s buy-in allowed our faculty to open three new laboratories.

  
  
  
• Adjectives formed from phrasal verbs
  
  When a phrasal verb is used as an adjective, it is usually hyphenated.
  
  

  Students participating in this initiative were given additional information during the signing-on phase.

  
  

  During the warm-up period, there will be no assessment.

• Precedence
  
  Be careful of using two or more punctuation marks in succession. Generally speaking, use the stronger or more necessary one. For example, question and exclamation marks are stronger than commas and full stops. However, quotation marks, brackets and ellipsis points are often used next to other punctuation marks. In the first of the two examples below, the question mark is used instead of the habitual comma and precedes the closing quotation marks; and in the second, a full stop is not needed because the exclamation mark already ends the sentence.
  
  

  “Have all the results been reported?” asked the researcher.

  
  

  “Fees must be paid by 20 December!”

  
  
  
• Punctuation and spacing
  
  Punctuation marks in English – apart from dashes, ellipsis points, slashes and opening brackets – are always next to the preceding word, without a space.
  
  Slashes are closed up to the preceding word and to the next word when they separate two single words.
  
  

  and/or

  male/female

  
  
  When a slash separates two groups of words or a group of words from a single word, insert a space before and after the slash.
  
  

  This proposal has been approved / requires further consideration.

  
  

  Such documents shall be signed by the rector / rector’s delegate, as applicable.

  
  
  Full stops, question marks, exclamation marks, commas, colons and semicolons are always followed by a single space.

• Instead of a comma
  
  Do not use a colon to substitute a comma. Therefore, not
  
  

  To complete your admission application: send the required documents by the end of the month.

  
  
  but
  
  

  To complete your admission application, send the required documents by the end of the month.

  
  
  
• After a preposition
  
  Do not use colons between a preposition and its complement. Therefore, not
  
  

  The Council announced cutbacks in: research funding, international cooperation and staff development.

  
  
  but
  
  

  The Council announced cutbacks in research funding, international cooperation and staff development.

  
  
  
• Two or more colons in a sentence
  
  Never use more than one colon in a sentence. Therefore, not
  
  

  The Council’s priorities are controversial: they have been praised and criticized by all groups: PDI, PTGAS and students.

  
  
  but
  
  

  The Council’s priorities are controversial. They have been praised and criticized by all groups: PDI, PTGAS and students.

  
  
  
  Note, however, that you can use a semicolon and a colon in the same sentence.
  
  

  The Government cutbacks have been devastating; protests are planned by many people working in the most affected areas: education, healthcare and social services.

• Separating a title from a subtitle
  
  When you cite the name of a book which has both a title and a subtitle, separate the two with a colon. Do this even though no colon may appear on the cover or the title page of the book itself.
  
  

  Human Towers: A Catalan Tradition

  
  
  
• Ratios
  
  Ratios can be written with words (two to one) or with numbers and a colon (2:1).
  
  

  Women outnumbered men by two to one.

  
  
  

  The ratio of women to men was 2:1.

• Main functions
• Alternatives to the semicolon
• Lists

• Full stop
  
  A semicolon can generally be replaced by a full stop.
  
  

  The Governing Council agreed to the measure. The Student Council rejected it.

  
  
  However, the semicolon suggests that the two shorter sentences are more closely related than two consecutive sentences usually are.
  
  
• A connecting word
  
  A semicolon can also be replaced by a suitable connecting word (and, or, but, while, yet) with a joining comma.
  
  

  The Governing Council agreed to the measure, yet the Student Council rejected it.

  
  
  However, certain connecting words must be preceded by a semicolon or full stop. The most common are consequently, hence, however, meanwhile, nevertheless, therefore and thus.
  
  

  The two sides have refused to negotiate; consequently, the measure has been suspended.

Knowing that some students put things off, the lecturer decided assignments should be submitted a week before the exam. The students in the third group, despite their best efforts, did not submit the assignment on time.

• Defining relative clauses
  
  In relative clauses do not use commas if the clause defines the antecedent and if omitting it would radically change the meaning of the sentence.
  
  

  Students who study here are very intelligent. Students who use the library are likely to be better prepared.

  
  
  The above clauses define the type of students referred to.
  
  In defining clauses that do not refer to people use either which or that.
  
  

  The research was completed with materials which were easily obtained. The research was completed with materials that were easily obtained.

  
  
  The above clauses define the type of materials referred to.

• Non-defining relative clauses
  
  Sentences with non-defining relative clauses need commas because the clause adds information to an otherwise complete sentence.
  
  

  Students at that university, who were all admitted with academic scholarships, have to work very hard.

  
  
  In non-defining clauses, only use which or who.
  
  

  The research, which was done over a period of three years, was conducted with easily obtained materials.

  
  
  In the following two sentences, which are both correct, the comma makes a difference. In the first, Dr Smith researches only those additives that pose a risk; in the second, the implication is that all food additives pose a risk.
  
  

  Dr Smith researches food additives which pose a risk to human health. Dr Smith researches food additives, which pose a risk to human health.

• Round brackets
• Square brackets

• Secondary or marginal information
  
  Use round brackets to indicate information that is secondary or marginal to the main idea of the sentence.
  
  

  The documentary was produced by Spotlight Films (a production company connected to the University’s film school).

  
  
  
• Explanations or abbreviations of preceding information
  
  Use round brackets to expand on or explain preceding information.
  
  

  EU-OSH (the European workplace safety and health agency) works to ensure that these regulations are respected.

  
  

  The project was funded by the World Health Organization (WHO).

  
  
  When a passage within round brackets is at the end of a sentence, of which it is only a part, place the full stop after the closing bracket. However, when the bracketed passage is a complete sentence, place the full stop before the opening bracket and then add a second full stop before the closing bracket.
  
  

  The number of students entering arts degrees is declining (according to recent reports).

  
  

  The number of students entering arts degrees is declining. (According to recent reports, it has dropped by over 25% in the last nine years.)

  
  
  
• Options
  
  Use round brackets to represent options.
  
  

  Please write your surname(s) in block capitals.

  
  

  The opinions of the author(s) are not shared by the publisher(s).

  
  
  
• Enumerations in a body of text
  
  Use round brackets to enclose numerals or letters in an enumeration in the body of a text. Italicize the numerals and letters.
  
  

  A project proposal should include (1) a description of the project, (2) an identification of the target audience, (3) an explanation of why the project deserves funding and (4) a comparison with similar projects implemented in recent years.

  
  

  The preview of your class paper should include (a) an abstract, (b) a sample of each chapter, (c) a selected bibliography and (d) details on funding.

• Clarifications within quoted text
  
  Use square brackets to set off a clarification within quoted text.
  
  

  The Rector said of the coming budget debate: “Never in all my years as rector have I had to make such a difficult decision about such a useful programme [grants for young researchers] affecting so many”.

  
  
  
• Optional or tentative text
  
  Use square brackets to indicate text that is optional or still open to discussion. In the following example, the School of Education is responsible for implementing the project. What is optional or uncertain is whether the Office of External Relations will share that responsibility.
  
  

  The implementation of the project will be the [joint] responsibility of the School of Education [and the Office of External Relations].

  
  
  
• Brackets within brackets
  
  Use square brackets to indicate parenthetical elements that are already in round brackets.
  
  

  A large multilateral organization (e.g., the World Bank [WB]) has the following characteristics…

• Direct questions
  
  Place a question mark at the end of any sentence that is a direct question.
  
  

  Who wrote that report?

  
  
  If the question is a direct quotation repeating the speaker’s exact words, a question mark is still used.
  
  

  “Who wrote that report?” she asked.

  
  
  
• Other types of questions
  
  
  • Indirect questions
    
    Do not use a question mark in an indirect question, in which the speaker’s exact words are not repeated. Use only a full stop, since the whole sentence is now a statement.
    
    

    She asked who had written that report.

    
    
    
  • Courtesy questions
    
    If a request or instruction is put as a question for reasons of courtesy, do not use a question mark.
    
    

    Would you please fill in and sign the attached application and submit it before the end of the month.

• Possessive forms of nouns
  
  The possessive form of a singular noun is marked by an apostrophe followed by s.
  
  

  the manager’s report

  the lecturer’s hypothesis

  
  
  This rule applies in most cases even with a name ending in s.
  
  

  the PTGAS’s response

  Erasmus’s success

  
  
  If a plural noun already ends in s, the apostrophe is used alone.
  
  

  the students’ work (several students)

  the teachers’ room (all the teachers)

  
  
  Note that the apostrophe is also used in expressions of time.
  
  

  eight weeks’ time

  yesterday’s meeting

  
  
  Degree types should be written with an apostrophe followed by s.
  
  

  bachelor’s degree

  master’s degree

  
  
  But note the exception doctoral degree (not doctor’s degree).
  
  Do not use apostrophes to indicate a decade, a plural acronym or the plurals of figures.
  
  

  the 1990’s	the 1990s
  URL’s	URLs
  747’s	747s

  
  
  
• Contractions
  
  Use apostrophes for contractions (you’re for you are, don’t for do not, it’s for it is or it has) but note that contractions are far less common in formal texts than they are in informal writing.

• Beginning of a sentence
• After a colon
• With round brackets

• Titles and ranks
• Personal names
• Places
• Reference
• Dates, periods and events
• Movements and ideologies
• Languages and nationalities
• Official documents
• Education
• Public institutions and organizations
• Congresses, events and competitions
• Brand names
• CamelCase

• Subjects, courses, degrees and disciplines
• Chairs and knowledge areas
• Grades
• Academic periods

• Forming acronyms and initialisms
• Forming contractions and truncations

• Using acronyms and initialisms
• Using contractions and truncations

• Truncated forms as codes or symbols
  
  Truncated forms used as codes or symbols do not take points.
  
  

  EN (English)

  kg (kilogram)

  
  
  
• Contractions and truncations in Latin
  
  Latin forms that are full words do not take a point; Latin forms that are not full words do take a point.
  
  

  sic (meaning as was written in the original)

  
  
  

  et al. (short for et alii meaning and others)

  
  
  

  no. (short for numero meaning number, with a point in this case to avoid confusion with the word no)

  
  
  
• Abbreviating people’s names
  
  Abbreviate people’s first names with a single letter only, followed by a point and a space.
  
  

  Philippe Junot	P. Junot
  Theodore Roosevelt	T. Roosevelt

  
  
  Write multiple initials with points and spaces.
  
  

  Elwyn Brooks White	E. B. White

  
  
  Represent compound first names by both initials.
  
  

  Joan Manuel Serrat	J. M. Serrat
  Jean-Paul Sartre	J.-P. Sartre

  
  
  Note, however, that in formal institutional texts like contracts or certificates you should avoid abbreviating people’s first names. For example, M. or M.^a should be written out as Maria or María, while J. Ramon should be written out as Joan Ramon or Josep Ramon (for further details, see People in the section on translation).
  
  
• Lower-case abbreviations
  
  Some common abbreviations are never written in upper case, even at the beginning of a footnote.
  
  

  c. (circa)

  e.g. (for example)

  i.e. (that is)

  
  

  l., ll. (line, lines)

  p., pp. (page, pages)

  
  
  When possible, however, avoid beginning a note with an abbreviation. For example, not
  
  

  ²¹pp. 125–132.

  
  
  but
  
  

  ²¹See pp.125–132.

  
  
  
• Use of Article
  
  Note that the word Article may be abbreviated to Art. in footnotes or tables but should not be abbreviated in running text.
  
  
• Use of etc.
  
  Only use etc. at the end of a series of examples and never at the end of a series introduced by the words like, for example or such as.

• Abbreviations and articles
• Abbreviations and plurals
• Abbreviations as adjectives